Types of False Information
False information generally falls into two categories: misinformation and disinformation. Misinformation is simply incorrect info and manifests as mistakes or errors. In news outlets, this is usually addressed with story updates and corrections. Disinformation is different. Disinformation is information that has been intentionally manipulated for less than amicable purposes. Disinformation often manifests itself as fake news, propaganda and weaponized information.
In recent years, the term “fake news” has become a politically charged term and is often used to dismiss unwanted or unflattering journalism. Misuse of the term can potentially be as manipulative, if not more so than the content contained within a falsified story itself. With that in mind, it is important to understand what fake news actually is.
While “fake news” is often used as a catch-all term, it is most appropriately defined as “misleading or false news stories that are shared widely on social media which appear to have been created without regard to factual basis.” (Fernandez, 2017). The process of creating fake news stories is based upon the ease with which a person can create a website that mimics the professionalism of a legitimate news organizations, but in reality is run by an individual making money off advertising. (Read more about that here.)
Let me recap-this is a website that looks like a news agency but there is no actual journalism involved. Literally news that is fake. This is an extremely profitable business but it is also remarkably dangerous for society.
Lets go back to mis/disinformation. Misinformation in news are basic mistakes. CNN, Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, Fox News…all legitimate news organizations with varying levels of journalistic quality. Mistakes are accidental, noted and then corrected (or ignored and hushed in less reliable outlets). With disinformation, mistakes are the foundation. Often times, these stories are copied and pasted from other outlets also trying to generate revenue, but other times, these falsehoods carry more sinister motives.
Weaponized Information
“The weaponization of information via digital propaganda has come to be seen by some states as the optimal instrument for correcting power asymmetries in their global standing” (Bjola, 2018). Rather than exuding power through displays of force and in avoidance of full out invasions, nations have chosen to use the control of information in efforts to manipulate their own populations as well as the population of enemy states. In more official terms, this is known as Psychological Warfare. Warfare where information is the weapon of choice.
Psychological warfare is “the use of propaganda against an enemy, supported by such military, economic, or political measures as may be required. Such propaganda is generally intended to demoralize the enemy, to break his will to fight or resist, and sometimes to render him favourably disposed to one’s position” (Encyclopedia Brittannica, 2007).
Accurate information is central to the health and welfare of a functioning democracy which is a concept well understood by foreign agents and non-democratic governments. Psychological warfare is essentially the weaponization of information for the purpose of breaking spirits and causing internal and institutional confusion and chaos. Today, this often takes the form of digital propaganda.
The internet has moved primary access to information from the realm of print to the digital environment. This means that information can now be weaponized on a global scale and manipulated in real time. The ease with which individuals can create professional looking journalistic websites means that the information consumer (that’s you) has a harder time distinguishing the difference between real and accurate information and falsified, manipulated information.
The Role of Social Media
In addition to the advancement of fake news sites, social media has mingled information seeking and sharing with personal identity. Social media users “often share content to express something about themselves and that content is amplified according to what elicits the strongest emotional reaction in others” (Fernandez, 2017). We design our social media profiles to be an outward extension of our identities. When this notion becomes entangled with our search for information, and especially when social media becomes our primary source for news and current events, our identity biases have a habit of taking over. After all, most people are less inclined to share stories and images that act contrary to or that challenge our identity.
The combination of identity bias, emotional reactions and information seeking behavior creates for a propagandist’s playground. When we scroll past an image or meme that confirms aspects of our identity (especially with religious or political content), we feel validated and encouraged. This type of emotional response is very easy to manipulate which is exactly what propagandists are trying to do. The ultimate goal is to isolate you in your own worldview and then use your perceptions against you (Stewart, Arif & Starbird, 2018).
(This process is further reinforced through filters bubbles; more on that later.)
Identification Tactics
Fake News:
Remember here that fake news is disinformation not misinformation. Mainstream media outlets are not fake. It is always important to understand manifestations of media bias and to seek out middle of the road news outlets (See our Media Literacy page on this site), but these are separate from fake sites. Fake news sites mimic these outlets. When you find a story that is not from a well known news organization, look for an author’s name (no name generally means a fake or a blog posting), look for the site’s “about page” for information pertaining to satire, and search for the website/domain name on lists compiled of fake news sites (like this one here).
Remember that mainstream news exists as a diverse spectrum of perspective that spans equally diverse partisan angles. If a piece of information is not being covered by any mainstream news outlet, you have likely ventured into the realm of fake news. And many of these fake sites push propaganda.
Propaganda:
Identifying propaganda images and content online can be tricky and there are different types (state sanctioned, corporate, and grassroots ideological propaganda, for example; more on that later). Additionally, my personal research on identification strategies is still ongoing but there is one striking similarity between many different styles, types and formats that I have noticed. Propaganda pieces often present a perception without providing any actual information.
I like to say fact checking is in the details; times, dates, places, names, etc…
Propaganda is in the lack of details, the lack of verifiable data or in that which has been omitted.
Perception without data is the easiest way for information consumers (that’s you) to identify propaganda. But it is important to note here, that this is not universally applicable. This is a simple method to identify simple forms of propaganda which works primarily with memes and online infographics. High quality propaganda pieces will be much more in-depth and will weaponize information to use perception and facts against you. These play off of our own social media identities, information seeking behaviors, cognitive biases and digital filter bubbles.
Sometimes the facts side with the propaganda.
Weaponized Information:
Weaponized information is when facts mingle with propaganda. These articles and memes foster division, demonize the other side of a debate, and push individuals deep into partisan echo chambers. Repeated exposure encourages individuals to become hostile towards information of a differing nature and subsequently towards the individuals who adhere to differing viewpoints. Again, the goal of the propagandist is to isolate you inside your own worldview and then use your own perceptions against you.
These types of disinformation campaigns can (and have) impact stock markets, influence elections, instigate riots and protests, spread conspiracy theories, and destabilize regions. Disinformation impacts both official and unofficial responses to everything from natural disasters to terrorist attacks (Vosoughi et al., 2018).
Summary
(tl;dr: Information is being used against you and it is way easier to manipulate people than most people think.)
Accurate information is a central component to a functioning democracy. And the internet has changed where and how people gather information. Consequently, controlling information through disinformation campaigns is now the weapon of choice for actors seeking power and influence on the global stage. Economics, politics, health, religion and social identities are all factors easily manipulated through the weaponization of information.
It is now more crucial than ever to be critical of one’s online information seeking and encountering behavior. Actively seek to identify manipulated information, know how your own biases manipulate you and be aware of how information can be used against you.
References
Bjola, C. (2017). Propaganda in the digital age. Global Affairs, 3(3), 189–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2017.1427694
Encyclopedia Brittannica (2015, Nov 20). Psychological Warfare. Retrieved September 16, 2008, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/psychological-warfare
Fernandez, P. (2017). The technology behind fake news. Library Hi Tech News,34(7), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1108/LHTN-07-2017-0054
Kirby, E. J. (2016, Dec 5). The city getting rich from fake news. Retrieved September 16 from https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-38168281
Stewart, L. G., Arif, A., & Starbird, K. (2018). Examining trolls and polarization with a retweet network. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.475/123_4
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559
